Shoplifting Inventory

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Shoplifting is one of the least reported and least detected types of crime, but is also one of the most common (Farrington, 1999). The many societal costs of shoplifting include higher costs for consumers as well as higher costs for taxpayers due to greater consumption of court and police resources to combat shoplifters (Clarke, 1999).

There are currently over 27 million shoplifters in the United States. Within the last 5 years, more than 10 million people have been caught shoplifting. Most shoplifters do not commit these offenses for profit, but for other reasons like an addiction to shoplifting or as a response to personal or social pressures. Not-for-profit shoplifters are classified as ‘non-professional shoplifters’ (NASP, 2006). This information and statistics provided by the National Association for Shoplifting Prevention (NASP) can be accessed at the NASP website: www.shopliftingprevention.org. NASP research emphasizes that the majority of non-professional shoplifters do not commit other types of crimes. The Shoplifting Inventory (SI) is an assessment or test developed specifically for evaluating shoplifters and their unique set of attitudinal and behavioral risk factors.

There are two different views of shoplifting in regards to intent. The fact that many shoplifters scan (look around) the area to check for security guards, cameras, etc. before they shoplift and then conceal shoplifted items means that these individuals have the intention to shoplift. Based on this, many view shoplifting as simply a crime of theft with no mental health-related cause or component. Others note that compulsive or chronic shoplifters often do have impulse control disorders that cause them to shoplift without prior intent. The Shoplifting Inventory (SI) Identifies shoplifting problem severity regardless of whether or not the intent to shoplift is present.

The Shoplifting Inventory (SI) is a self-report test that is comprised of 141 items and the following seven scales: 1) Truthfulness Scale, 2) Shoplifting Scale, 3) Impulsiveness Scale, 4) Peer Pressure Scale, 5) Alcohol Scale, 6) Drugs Scale and 7) Self-Esteem Scale. Together, these seven scales create a comprehensive profile of an individual’s shoplifting risk. What are the advantages of screening shoplifters? Doing so provides information about the seriousness of the offender’s shoplifting involvement and co-occurring problems, which aids in determining whether the shoplifter would benefit from further treatment, supervision or evaluation.

Shoplifting Inventory scale scores are classified as ‘problematic’ when they are at or above the 70th percentile. This classification system is evidence-based and prevents extreme over- or under-identification of problems.

Offenders tested with the Shoplifting Inventory (SI) have committed the act(s) of shoplifting, but some will not manifest as ‘problematic’ in terms of their SI scale scores. Individuals who attain a ‘non-problematic’ Shoplifting Inventory profile (all scale scores are below the 70th percentile) are better suited to probation or other correctional supervision as opposed to clinically-focused treatment. It is just as important to identify offenders that do not require treatment (but that would likely benefit from correctional supervision) as it is to identify offenders that would benefit from counseling and treatment. The focused identification of individual risk is helpful for budgetary reasons and for conscientious allocation of available resources, as well as for matching problem severity with treatment/supervision intensity. This type of matching optimizes treatment and supervision effectiveness (Bonta & Andrews, 2007).

The Truthfulness Scale is one of several unique features of the Shoplifting Inventory; it consists of a number of items that most people would respond to in a certain way. Based on an individual’s Truthfulness Scale response pattern, raw Shoplifting Inventory scale scores are converted using a sophisticated psychometric technique known as ‘truth-correction’. The Truthfulness Scale has been validated with the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), polygraph exams, other tests, truthfulness studies and experienced staff judgment.

A study conducted by Schwartz and Wood (1991) found several behavioral and motivational factors specific to shoplifters which include peer pressure, entitlement and impulsiveness. The Peer Pressure Scale and Impulsiveness Scale are synonymous with the types of items they pertain to: the strength of influence that peers have on an individual and the tendency to act on impulse without forethought, respectively. The Shoplifting Scale identifies shoplifting involvement and severity as well as attitudes about shoplifting, including the ‘sense of entitlement’ mindset.

Shoplifting, like substance use, can become an addiction (NASP, 2006). Some compulsive shoplifters may have co-occurring problems which can include alcohol abuse and mental health disorders like low self-esteem (Bradford & Balmaceda, 1983). In terms of substance abuse, a small but significant percentage of individuals who shoplift do so to finance their substance use (NASP, 2006). A substance related problem may exacerbate the need to shoplift or vice versa. Due to reduced inhibitions, drug use in itself can increase the likelihood of shoplifting and its frequency (Williams & Dalby, 1986). The Alcohol Scale and Drugs Scale in the Shoplifting Inventory measure alcohol (beer, wine, liquor) and drug (marijuana, heroin, barbiturates, cocaine, crack, amphetamines, ecstasy, etc.) involvement and severity of abuse, when present. The Drugs Scale incorporates prescription drug abuse in addition to illicit drug use.

Research findings link shoplifting with low self-esteem (Goldner, Gellar, Birmingham & Remick, 2000). Feelings of shame or guilt associated with shoplifting can amplify feelings of worthlessness (low self-esteem); conversely, individuals may unconsciously attempt to boost their sense of self-worth by attaining the elated ‘high’ that they may experience during or after a successful shoplift episode. Ornstein, Gropper and Bogner (1983) noted that shoplifting can be an expression of attempting to find reimbursement for (perceived or actual) wrongs and often creates feelings of victory and fulfillment for the shoplifter. The Self-Esteem Scale in the Shoplifting Inventory (SI) measures the respondent’s perception of self.

Shoplifting is not only detrimental to society because of its cost, but is frequently devastating to shoplifters and those around them. Many shoplifters cannot effectively control the urge to shoplift; without intervention and treatment their situation becomes worse. Shoplifting involvement can lead to destroyed reputations and other negative consequences. With fair and accurate assessment, shoplifter problems can be identified and productively addressed.

References

Bonta, J. & Andrews, D.A. (2007). Risk-Need-Responsivity model for offender assessment and rehabilitation. (User report No. 2007-06). Ottawa, ON: Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada.

Bradford, J. & Balmaceda, R. (1983). Shoplifting: Is there a specific psychiatric syndrome?; Journal of Psychiatry; 28 (4): 248-254.

Clarke, R. (1999). Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating and Reducing the Demand for Stolen Goods. Police Research Series, Paper 112. London: Home Office.

Farrington, D. (1999). Measuring, Explaining and Preventing Shoplifting: A Review of British Research. Security Journal, 12(1):9–27.

Goldner, E., Geller, J., Birmingham, C.L., Remick, R.A. (2000). Comparison of Shoplifting Behaviours in Patients with Eating Disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; Jun. 2000; Vol. 45(5);

Ornstein, A., Gropper, C. & Bogner, J. (1983). Shoplifting: An expression of revenge and restitution. Psychoanalysis; 11; 311-331.

Schwartz, S. & Wood, H. (1991). Clinical assessment and intervention with shoplifters. Social Work; May 1991, 36 (3): 234-238.

Williams, R. & Dalby, J. T. (1986). Benzodiazepines and shoplifting. Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology; 30 (1): 35-39.

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